Ethnobotanical Applications for Wilderness Medicine

Ethnobotanical Applications for Wilderness Medicine

"Everything on the earth has a purpose, every disease an herb to cure it, and every person a mission. This is the Indian theory of existence.”Mourning Dove Salish, 1888-1936       

  While Ethnobotany has emerged as an important discipline in the search for new drugs (Berlin & Berlin, 1994), there are applications for wildcrafted herbs that can assist with the administration of wilderness medicine. The avid backpacker, wilderness therapist, or search and rescue team is burdened with carrying heavy camping essentials. They can lighten their load with knowledge of easily identifiable, safe, wildcrafted herbs that can assist with minor medical emergencies. In a wilderness survival setting, it is important to have plant identification in your repertoire for their medicinal as well as edible nature.          The aim of the blog is to provide ethnobotanical options in a wilderness setting. There are several fundamental reasons for applying the approaches and methods of ethnobotany for these purposes.  First, it allows the knowledge, wisdom and medical practices of aboriginal peoples to be applied to current medical situations in an austere setting. Second, these ethnobotanical practices have been tested by multi-generational use. Third, these herbal options are cost effective and available from natural health stores or found in the wilderness.         This paper will introduce ethnobotany; it will discuss several plant options that provide medicinal support in a wilderness setting, and will provide applications for these herbal medicines within a wilderness situation.  Introduction to ethnobotany         Ethnobotany is the study of the relationship between plants and people (Moerman, 1998). This commonly refers to researching the indigenous uses of plants. It is the collective energies of anthropology, medicine, and botany. Ethnobotany is a discipline that investigates the roles of plants as medicine, culture, and resources. Ethnobotanists explore and experience how plants are used for food, shelter, medicine, survival, clothing, and spiritual ceremonies (Moerman, 1998).         Ethnobotany is a distinctive field of study in academic research. It maintains a multidisciplinary character in both theory and methods. Plants and people are the focus through ecological patterns, plant dispersals, medicines, resource use, and horticultural and agricultural designs are the usual paths of research for Ethnobotanists (Shreve, & Wiggins, 1964).         There are two main concentrations within the field of Ethnobotany. Some Ethnobotanists focus their research on discovering plant and human interactions through indigenous symbols, epistemology, folklore, and ceremony (Bahr, 1974). Other Ethnobotanists concentrate on plant classifications, and finding empirical species (Berlin, 1973).          Although Ethnobotany transitions between a composition of theory and methods, common threads can be found within both concentrations. Both aspects require time spent in the field among the plants of a given region. Only from close personal contact with vegetation can the Ethnobotanist be able to relate to the local ecology and taxonomies. It is also helpful that the researcher acknowledges culturally relative cognitive and symbiotic properties of the herbs and plants within the region of research. Ecological relationships between the plants, animals, insects, and people are profound to botanical research. Also important is the ecological pressures on a given ecology (Ford, 1978).          Ethnobotany has its roots in botany, which is the study of plants. Botany, originated from an interest in finding plants to help fight illness. Over the centuries, medicine and botany have had close ties (Moerman, 1998). Many of today's drugs have been derived from plant sources. For instance, cocaine from cocoa plant, digitoxin from foxglove, and aspirin from willow are just a few modern pharmaceuticals that have plant origins.         The field of Ethnomedicine has emerged with the renewed interest in using ancient plants as medicinal agents in modern western medicine (Moerman, 1998). It is a symbiosis of other disciplines. These include anthropology, botany, public health, and other relevant social sciences. Those specializing in Ethnomedicine must be open to the unique views of the healing systems practiced by indigenous peoples, as well as the ability to work as a team with those in other disciplines. The researcher in Ethnomedicine works with shamans and traditional healers to identify the specific diseases common to both Western cultures and indigenous peoples (Moerman, 1998).          In past times, plants were a vital source of material for medicine (Hutchens, 1973). Plants were the only source for healing, and the major source of food with supplements from hunted meat. For thousands of years, aboriginal societies in all six livable continents etched out a comfortable sustenance from the environment. Since antiquity, western societies used plant medicines as the major source of healthcare (Moerman, 1998). It was not until the rise of western medicine starting in the 16th century that non-plant medicines were manufactured by chemistry. It was also with the rise of western medicine, that plant derivatives were extracted and administered separately from the plant structure. Up until this time, the plant had always been given as a whole.          Science has been able to define and extract the exact chemical that acts on the body chemistry in the way that the researchers desire. From an Ethnomedicine point of view, the aboriginal societies firmly believed that the whole plant should be administered for a given illness. In their view, all of the chemicals in the plant are needed for the treatment (Moerman, 1998). They believe that the Creator designed each plant in the way that is best needed for the environment.          Physical consequences of administering individual constituents of a plant can be seen in the form of aspirin. When people take aspirin, there can be side effects of ulcers, upset stomach, or even allergic reaction. From an aboriginal standpoint, this makes perfect sense. For if the entire plant was administered in the form of willow bark, the other chemical compounds can balance to side effects from the acetylsalicylic acid.          In recent times, science has developed techniques to produce synthetic replacements for many of the medicines that had been derived from plants. These synthetic replacements have equal benefit to the patient. The problem now lies on the cost to the consumer. In the past few decades problems with drug resistant microorganisms, side effects of modern drugs, and emerging diseases where no medicines are available, have encouraged an interest in plants once again as a significant source of new medicines. Modern day researchers are coming to appreciate fully the vast medicinal knowledge of the indigenous people.         This recent increase in interest for plant medicines is easily applicable to a wilderness setting. Today’s outdoor enthusiast, expedition backpacker, or wilderness therapist can benefit from current research on wilderness medicines as well as rely on longitudinal studies conducted by indigenous populations for thousands of years. The application of Ethnobotany in wilderness medicine.         Knowledge of just a few widely growing plant species can greatly enhance a backpacker’s medical kit. There are a number of plants that can be found in most wilderness settings. This paper will discuss just a few of the most easily identifiable options with no look-a-like plants that may be dangerous. These plants will be safe for the novice wilderness enthusiast to use it for their wilderness medicine applications. YARROW (Achillea Millefolium)[Photo]         This feather like plant is found in every state, providence and in every climate found within North America. I have found huge plants reaching to one meter in height in Southeast Alaska. The same species can also be found in the high deserts of the mid west, but only grow a few inches high. Nonetheless, this plant is useful wherever it is found. Uses for this plant range from a topical anesthesia, a tea for colds, or a gargle for sore throats (Pojar, 1994).         Yarrow’s botanical name, Achillea, honors the ancient hero Achilles. According to folklore, the mother of this young warrior dipped him in the river Styx in order to make him invincible (King, 1987). Other stories relate how Achilles used the medicinal qualities of Yarrow to staunch wounds obtained in battle (Schofield, 1989).          Scientific studies have shown that the plant does in fact stop bleeding by causing vasoconstriction of blood vessels that are exposed to the plant (Evelyn, 1998). Other applications include drinking a tea made from the leaves of Yarrow for colds, flu symptoms, and internal bleeding (Schofield, 1989). Yarrow causes diaphoresis that in turn cools the body temperature from the mild sweating.          Recent studies have shown the antimicrobial properties of Yarrow (Stojanovic G. et al., 2005). Topical applications of this plant not only address a bleeding wound, it can also prevent infection. This plant has shown that it minimizes microbial growth five bacteria; Staph aureus, E. coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Salmonella enteritidis. Yarrow is also effective against two fungi; Aspergillus niger and Candida albicans (Stojanovic et al., 2005).          The Bella Coola tribe in British Columbia chewed the leaves of Yarrow and applied them to burns (Hutchens, 1973). Tarran et. al, showed the effectiveness of using Yarrow on napalm burns (Tarran et. al, 1989). Hutchins also mentions the application of Yarrow for toothaches. She mentions that placing a leaf of Yarrow on the gums next to the affected tooth will ease the pain (Hutchens, 1973).         Other uses of the very helpful plant are a mouthwash for sore throats. Schofield mentions that the Gitksan tribes used the leaves, stems, and flowers of the plant as a gargle (Schofield, 1989).         Yarrow is easily identifiable and has no plant look a likes that could interfere with safe use. Yarrow can be harvested throughout the spring and summer. Some climates allow yarrow use year round.  PLANTAIN (Plantago spp.)         Plantain is a common yard weed that the majority of the population vehemently attempts to eradicate when found in their lawns. The Native Americans called this plant ‘white man’s footsteps’ because it was brought to the new world from Europe (Hutchins, 1973). This plant does not have the longitudinal background that Yarrow does. It has been used recently by Native Americans both internally and externally. It is excellent for healing new or chronic wounds (Schofield, 1989). [Photo]         Plantain grows in two distinctly characteristic patterns. One is paddle shaped and looks similar to a tennis racket, growing up to a foot in length. The usual dimensions are a few inches long and a little narrower in width. The second characteristic pattern is lance shaped. Both types of Plantain contain paralleled veins on the underside of the leaf. This is very distinctive and a great tool in plant identification. Even though there is no difference in the chemical structure of each of these plantain types, they are very discernable from each other (Moore, 1993).           The medicinal uses of ninth-century ‘sacred herb’ include topical applications for a myriad of ailments. It is a soothing herb for the skin. It was chewed into a poultice and placed on leg ulcers, nettle stings, burns abscesses, insect and snakebites, cuts and cuts and scrapes (Schofield, 1989). Fresh leaves are considered most effective, but harvested dry leaves are applicable throughout all four seasons (Moore, 1993).           Alexander the Great used plantain for headaches. It was added to Rose oil and rubbed on the temples of relief, and on the feet for pain from arthritis (Schofield, 1989). Shakespeare referenced the wonders of this healing herb when he had Romeo instructs Benvolio to apply plantain on his broken skin (Romeo and Juliet, Act I. Scene II).         Plantain is a great addition to any backpacker’s medical kit. Even if the wilderness destination is thousands of feet above the tree line, the dried herb can be carried for minor cuts, scrapes, and abrasions. The dried plant does not add much weight and a lot of the herb can be carried for extended trips. A pinch of the herb is chewed for a few seconds to reconstitute the mucilaginous texture and applied to the skin. It can be kept in place with a medical dressing, duct tape, or anything that can be used to keep the moist medicine in contact with the skin.  DEVIL’S CLUB (Oplopanax horridum)         This plant grows in moist woods at the lower to moderate elevations throughout western North America. It is part of the Ginseng family. The spiked stem grows to a height of 6 to 10 feet and supports a few large maple-like leaf and reddish flowers that mature to dark purple berries in the fall. The root bark is the plant part used (Pojar, 1994). The plant spreads from a branching root and parts of it can be pulled up and cut without terminating the plant. The bark is stripped off and can be freshly tinctured or dried for later use. The [Photo]leaves can be used as a tea for respiratory infections (Hutchens, 1973).          The spines found on the stems of this plant causes painful irritation wherever they poke through the skin. Schofield mentions that rolling a small leaf part into a ball and mashing the liquid from within the leaf structure will help with the sting from the spines. Liberal application of the crushed leaf will bring slight soothing relief, but not eliminate the discomfort (Schofield, 1989).          Using this plant as a cold compress on rheumatoid arthritis has shown to lessen the swelling and pain (Moore, 1994). The Alaskan Tlingit and Haida tribes have been using this plant for centuries for colds, chest pain following a cold, for arthritic pain and constipation (Schofield, 1989). The Aleut tribes from Prince William Sound use this herb for relief from colds and for pain. They also will burn the bark until it reaches a fine white ash and apply that to minor cuts and abrasions.          Although this plant is not found outside of the Pacific Northwest, it can still be a part of the wilderness medical kit. Dried leaves can be used as a tea, and there are some research that shows that the Ginseng family has been beneficial for acute mountain sickness (Scholey  & Kennedy, 2002). Thus, this plant has much to offer the wilderness medical kit. CONIFER TREES (Pinus contorta, Tsuga spp, Psedotsuga Menziesii)[Photo]         The wilderness backpacker is seldom found hiking where there are no evergreen trees. The pine, hemlock, spruce, and the Douglas fir trees can be found throughout North America. These species are effortless sources for medical supplies. The pine needles from each of these evergreen plants are extremely high in vitamin C, (Korotkova et. al, 2003). The First Nations communities would make a pine needle tea to supplement their diet (Hutchens, 1973).          Pinus contorta includes four distinctly different varieties; Rocky Mountain lodgepole pine, shore pine, Sierra lodgepole pine, and Bolander pine. The term ‘Lodgepole pine’ refers to this species. All of these plant species have similar uses for wilderness medicine. Besides the nutritious pine needles, the First Nations used the pitch, the inner Cambium bark, and the nuts from the cones (Pojar, 1994, Hutchens, 1973). The trees were also a large source for hunting and building supplies. The Western Red Cedar was called ‘the tree of life’ by the Haida tribe because of how many of their common items originated from that one tree species (Turner, 1999).          The Bella Coola tribe from the coast of British Columbia, would collect the gum from tree bark, chew it into a soft consistency, and apply it to cuts, burns, and broken skin (Pojar, 1994). The Tadoussac tribe boiled the pine needles for a remedy for sore throat. The Montagnais people used boiled pitch for the same ailment (Vogel, 1970).          The only caution found within the evergreen family is the needles found on the Yew and Cedar species. The volatile oils found within these two plants are very potent. The leaves should not be used internally (Pojar, 1994).         The beauty of learning the medicinal qualities of the evergreen trees is that they are prolific in the backcountry, easily identifiable, and quickly found. The needles from the pine, fir, spruce, and Douglas fir are all edible and very nutritious. The pitch and needles can be applied directly to wounds and burns. The leaves need to be crushed into a salve in order free the constituents found within the plant.  SUMMARY         Wilderness medicine can be greatly enhanced with the knowledge and use of medicinal plants. A few easily identifiable options are quickly learned. Search and rescue teams, wilderness guides, outdoor enthusiasts, and wilderness therapists can expand their medical kit with the introduction to these four plant families.          This paper addressed the basic concepts of ethnobotany. It discussed two main concentrations focusing on the research of plant discoveries and plant classifications. It showed that there is current research on plant medicines that indicate that the First Nations uses for these plant species can be scientifically proven. It went on to provide applications for herbal medicines within a wilderness situation using four plant families: Yarrow, Plantain, Devil’s Club, and the Pine.         Scientific method has shown that some of the herbal applications practices by First Nations over the centuries are sound (Korotkova et. al, 2003). As the national forests, parks, and remote spaces are continuing to see vast amounts of recreational use, it is beneficial for the outdoor enthusiast to learn some basic ethnobotanical applications for wilderness medicine.